Quantum dots, production methods thereof, and electronic devices including the same

ABSTRACT

A quantum dot having a perovskite crystal structure and including a compound represented by Chemical Formula 1:
 
ABX 3+α   Chemical Formula 1
 
wherein, A is a Group IA metal selected from Rb, Cs, Fr, and a combination thereof, B is a Group IVA metal selected from Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, and a combination thereof, X is a halogen selected from F, Cl, Br, and I, BF 4 , or a combination thereof, and α is greater than 0 and less than or equal to about 3; and wherein the quantum dot has a size of about 1 nanometer to about 50 nanometers.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation application of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 16/798,948 filed in the United States Patent andTrademark Office on Feb. 24, 2020, now issued as U.S. Pat. No.11,124,702, which is a continuation application of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 15/335,700 filed in the United States Patent andTrademark Office on Oct. 27, 2016, now issued as U.S. Pat. No.10,597,580, which claims priority to and the benefit of Korean PatentApplication No. 10-2015-0150441 filed in the Korean IntellectualProperty Office on Oct. 28, 2015, and all the benefits accruingtherefrom under 35 U.S.C. § 119, the entire contents of which areincorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND 1. Field

Quantum dots, production methods thereof, and electronic devicesincluding the same are disclosed.

2. Description of the Related Art

The physical characteristics (e.g., energy bandgaps and melting points)of nanoparticles that are known as intrinsic characteristics depend ontheir particle size, unlike bulk materials. For example, a semiconductornanocrystal, also known as a quantum dot (QD), is a semiconductormaterial having a crystalline structure with a size of severalnanometers. Quantum dots have such a small size that they have a largesurface area per unit volume and exhibit quantum confinement effects,and thus have different physicochemical characteristics from thecharacteristics of the bulk material. Quantum dots may absorb light froman excitation source, and may emit energy corresponding to an energybandgap of the quantum dot. In the quantum dots, the energy bandgap maybe selected by controlling the sizes and/or the compositions of thenanocrystals. Also, QDs have desirable photoluminescence properties andhave a high color purity. Therefore, QD technology is used for variousapplications, including a display element, an energy device, a bio-lightemitting element, or the like.

The quantum dots may be synthesized in a vapor deposition method such asmetal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) and/or molecular beamepitaxy (MBE), or in a wet chemical method by adding a precursor to anorganic solvent to grow crystals. In the wet chemical method, colloidalquantum dots may be prepared, and the quantum dots are coordinated withan organic material such as a dispersing agent on its surface during thecrystal growth, and thereby the organic material controls the crystalgrowth. Therefore, the quantum dots may have a uniform size and shape,and semiconductor nanocrystal particles having various compositionsand/or structures (e.g. core/shell) may be more easily synthesized inthe wet chemical method than in the vapor deposition method.

The prepared quantum dots are separated and/or rinsed, and may beprocessed in a form of a composite including the quantum dots dispersedin a matrix such as a polymer for a final application. In the aboveprocesses, photoluminescence characteristics of the semiconductornanocrystals may be degraded. Therefore, there is a need to developsemiconductor nanocrystals having improved stability andphotoluminescence characteristic.

SUMMARY

An embodiment provides quantum dots having improved photoluminescenceproperties and enhanced stability.

Another embodiment provides a method of producing the quantum dots.

Yet another embodiment provides an electronic device including thequantum dots.

In an embodiment, a quantum dot has a perovskite crystal structure,includes a compound represented by Chemical Formula 1:ABX_(3+α)  Chemical Formula 1

wherein, A is a Group IA metal selected from Rb, Cs, Fr, and acombination thereof, B is a Group IVA metal selected from Si, Ge, Sn,Pb, and a combination thereof, X is a halogen selected from F, Cl, Br,and I, BF₄, or a combination thereof, and α is greater than 0 and lessthan or equal to about 3, and wherein the quantum dot has a size ofabout 1 nanometer to about 50 nanometers.

A photoluminescence peak wavelength of the quantum dot may be in a rangeof about 300 nm to about 700 nm.

A photoluminescence peak wavelength of the quantum dot may be in a rangeof about 400 nm to about 680 nm.

The quantum dot may further include at least one of a first dopant and asecond dopant, and the first dopant may include potassium (K) or a firstmetal having a crystal ionic radius of less than about 133 picometers(pm) and being different from the Group IA metal and the Group IVAmetal, and the second dopant may include a non-metal element that formsa bond with the Group IVA metal.

The first metal may have a crystal ionic radius that is smaller than acrystal ionic radius of the Group IVA metal of the B in Chemical Formula1.

The first metal may include Zn, Cd, Hg, Ga, In, Tl, Cu, Al, Li, Na, Be,Mg, Ca, Sr, Ag, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Fe, Cr, Zr, Mn, Ti, Ce, Gd, or acombination thereof.

In an embodiment, the non-metal element includes S, Se, Te, or acombination thereof.

In an embodiment, the quantum dot includes the first dopant, and anamount of the first dopant may be greater than or equal to about 0.001parts per million (ppm) when measured by an inductively coupledplasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) analysis.

In another embodiment, the quantum dot includes the second dopant, andan amount of the second dopant may be greater than or equal to about0.001 ppm when measured by an inductively coupled plasma-atomic emissionspectroscopy (ICP-AES) analysis.

In an embodiment, the quantum dot includes the first dopant and thesecond dopant and each of an amount of the first dopant and an amount ofthe second dopant may be greater than or equal to about 0.001 ppm whenmeasured by an inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy(ICP-AES) analysis, respectively.

The compound may include CsPbCl_(3+α), CsPbBr_(3+α), CsPbI_(3+α),CsPb(Cl, I)_(3+α), CsPb(Br,I)_(3+α), CsPb(Br,Cl)_(3+α), or a combinationthereof.

In the quantum dot, an atomic ratio of a halogen with respect to theGroup IA metal when measured by a transmission electronmicroscope-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (TEM-EDX) analysis maybe greater than about 3.0.

In the quantum dot, an atomic ratio of a halogen with respect to theGroup IA metal when measured by a transmission electronmicroscope-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (TEM-EDX) analysis maybe greater than or equal to about 3.1.

The quantum dot may have an organic ligand compound selected from RCOOH,RNH₂, R₂NH, R₃N, RSH, R₃PO, R₃P, ROH, RCOOR′, RPO(OH)₂, R₂POOH, RCOOCOR′(wherein, R and R′ are independently a substituted or unsubstituted C1to C24 aliphatic hydrocarbon group or a substituted or unsubstituted C6to C24 aromatic hydrocarbon group), and a combination thereof on asurface of the quantum dot.

The quantum dot may have a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of aphotoluminescence peak wavelength of less than or equal to about 30 nm.

The quantum dot may have quantum efficiency of greater than or equal toabout 60%.

The quantum dot may not exhibit a decrease in quantum efficiency untilafter about 48 hours when it is dispersed in toluene and the resultingsolution is allowed to stand in air.

In another embodiment, a method of producing a quantum dot is provided,the method including:

providing a reaction solution including a first precursor including aGroup IA metal selected from Rb, Cs, and Fr, NR₄ ⁺, [CH(NH₂)₂]⁺, or acombination thereof and optionally BF₄, wherein, each R is independentlya hydrogen atom or a substituted or unsubstituted C1 to C10 straight orbranched alkyl group; and a second precursor including a halogen, and aGroup IVA metal selected from Ge, Si, Sn, Pb, and a combination thereof;and, optionally at least one of a first additive and a second additive,wherein the first additive includes a halogen and a first metal having acrystal ionic radius of less than or equal to 133 picometers and beingdifferent from the Group IA metal and the Group IVA metal, and thesecond additive includes a non-metal element that forms a bond with theGroup IVA metal; and

reacting the first precursor and the second precursor in the reactionsolution to synthesize a quantum dot that has a perovskite crystalstructure, includes a compound represented by Chemical Formula 1, andhas a size of about 1 nanometer to about 50 nanometers:ABX_(3+α)  Chemical Formula 1

wherein A is the Group IA metal, NR₄ ⁺, [CH(NH₂)₂]⁺, or a combinationthereof, B is the Group IVA metal, X is BF₄, the halogen, or acombination thereof, and α is greater than 0 and less than or equal toabout 3.

The first precursor may include NR₄ ⁺ (wherein each R independently is ahydrogen atom or a C1 to 010 straight or branched alkyl group) and BF₄.

The second precursor may include a Pb halide, a Ge halide, a Si halide,a Sn halide, or a combination thereof.

In an embodiment, the first metal is present and includes Zn, Cd, Hg,Ga, In, Tl, Cu, Al, Li, Na, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ag, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Fe, Cr,Zr, Mn, Ti, Ce, Gd, or a combination thereof.

The non-metal element may include S, Se, Te, or a combination thereof.

The first precursor may be a metal powder, a metal carbonate, analkylated metal compound, a metal alkoxide, a metal carboxylate, a metalnitrate, a metal perchlorate, a metal sulfate, a metal acetylacetonate,a metal halide, a metal cyanide, a metal hydroxide, a metal oxide, ametal peroxide, or a combination thereof.

The reaction solution may include the first additive, and the firstadditive includes a halide of the first metal.

The first additive may include ZnX₂, CdX₂, HgX₂, GaX₃, InX₃, TlX₃, CuX₂,AlX₃, LiX, NaX, BeX₂, MgX₂, CaX₂, SrX₂, AgX, PtX₂, PtX₄, PdX₂, NiX₂,CoX₂, FeX₂, CrX₂, CrX₃, ZrX₃, ZrX₄, MnX₂, TiX₂, CeX₂, GdX₂, or acombination thereof (wherein X is F, Cl, Br, or I).

The reaction solution may include the second additive and the secondadditive may include sulfur-trioctylphosphine (S-TOP),sulfur-tributylphosphine (S-TBP), sulfur-triphenylphosphine (S-TPP),sulfur-trioctylamine (S-TOA), sulfur-octadecene (S-ODE),sulfur-diphenylphosphine (S-DPP), sulfur-oleylamine (S-oleylamine),sulfur-dodecylamine (S-dodecylamine), dodecanethiol (DDT), octanethiol,selenium-trioctylphosphine (Se-TOP), selenium-tributylphosphine(Se-TBP), selenium-triphenylphosphine (Se-TPP), selenium octadecene(Se-ODE), selenium diphenylphosphine (Se-DPP), selenium-dodecylamine(Se-dodecylamine), tellurium-tributylphosphine (Te-TBP),tellurium-triphenylphosphine (Te-TPP), tellurium-trioctylphosphine(Te-TOP), tellurium-octadecene (Te-ODE), tellurium-diphenylphosphine(Te-DPP), tellurium-oleylamine (Te-oleylamine), tellurium-dodecylamine(Te-dodecylamine), or a combination thereof.

The reaction solution may further include a halogen organic ligandcompound.

The halogen organic ligand compound may be HF, HCl, HBr, HI, alkylhalide (e.g. CH₃Cl, CH₃Br), dichloroethylene, dibromoethylene,tetrachloroethylene, tetrabromoethylene, hexachloroethane,hexachloropropylene, chlorohexanol, bromohexanol, C₂H₃Br, C₂H₃Cl,N-bromosuccinimide, or a combination thereof.

The providing the reaction solution may use a solvent selected from a C6to C22 amine compound, a nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound, a C6to C40 aliphatic hydrocarbon, a C6 to C30 aromatic hydrocarbon, a C6 toC22 phosphine oxide compound, a C12 to C22 aromatic ether, and acombination thereof.

The reaction solution may further include at least one organic ligandcompound selected from RCOOH, RNH₂, R₂NH, R₃N, RSH, R₃PO, R₃P, ROH,RCOOR′, RPO(OH)₂, R₂POOH, RCOOCOR′ (wherein, each R and R′ areindependently a substituted or unsubstituted C1 to C24 aliphatichydrocarbon group or a substituted or unsubstituted C6 to C24 aromatichydrocarbon group), and a combination thereof.

The providing of the reaction solution may include:

preparing a first solution including the first precursor;

preparing a second solution including the second precursor andoptionally the first additive; and

combining the second solution with the first solution and optionally thesecond additive.

In another embodiment, a quantum dot-polymer composite includes

a polymer matrix; and

a quantum dot,

wherein the quantum dot is dispersed in the polymer matrix.

The polymer matrix may include a thiolene polymer, a (meth)acrylatepolymer, a urethane polymer, an epoxy polymer, a vinyl polymer, asilicone polymer resin, or a combination thereof.

The quantum dot-polymer composite may have blue light conversionefficiency of greater than or equal to about 15%.

Another embodiment provides an electronic device including the quantumdot-polymer composite.

Still another embodiment provides an electronic device including thequantum dot.

The electronic device may be a light emitting diode (LED), an organiclight emitting diode (OLED), a sensor, an imaging sensor, or a solarcell electronic device, or a liquid crystal display (LCD) device.

The quantum dots of the embodiments may have enhanced photoluminescenceproperties and stability even when they undergo a separation from thesynthesis solvent and/or a washing process after the separationtherefrom and/or when they are prepared into a quantum dot-polymermatrix.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and/or other aspects will become apparent and more readilyappreciated from the following description of the embodiments, taken inconjunction with the accompanying drawings in which:

FIG. 1 is a flowchart showing a method of producing a quantum dotaccording to an embodiment;

FIG. 2 is a flowchart showing a method of producing a quantum dotaccording to another embodiment;

FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing a method of producing a quantum dotaccording to another embodiment;

FIG. 4 is a graph of intensity (arbitrary units, a.u.) versusdiffraction angle (degrees 2-theta, 2θ) showing an X-ray diffraction(XRD) spectrum of a quantum dot according to the Examples andComparative Examples;

FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view showing a quantum dot-polymer compositeaccording to an embodiment;

FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of a display structure including aquantum dot-polymer composite (QD sheet) according to an embodiment; and

FIG. 7 is a high angle annular dark field scanning transmission electronmicroscopy (HAADF STEM) image showing the quantum dot prepared inExample 1.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Advantages and characteristics of this disclosure, and a method forachieving the same, will become evident referring to the followingexample embodiments together with the drawings attached hereto. Theembodiments may, however, be embodied in many different forms and shouldnot be construed as being limited to the embodiments set forth herein.If not defined otherwise, all terms (including technical and scientificterms) in the specification may be defined as commonly understood by oneskilled in the art. The terms defined in a generally-used dictionary maynot be interpreted ideally or exaggeratedly unless clearly defined. Inaddition, unless explicitly described to the contrary, the word“comprise” and variations such as “comprises” or “comprising,” will beunderstood to imply the inclusion of stated elements but not theexclusion of any other elements.

Further, the singular includes the plural, unless mentioned otherwise.

In the drawings, the thickness of layers, films, panels, regions, etc.,are exaggerated for clarity. Like reference numerals designate likeelements throughout the specification.

It will be understood that when an element such as a layer, film,region, or substrate is referred to as being “on” another element, itcan be directly on the other element or intervening elements may also bepresent. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directlyon” another element, there are no intervening elements present.

It will be understood that, although the terms “first,” “second,”“third,” etc. may be used herein to describe various elements,components, regions, layers, and/or sections, these elements,components, regions, layers, and/or sections should not be limited bythese terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element,component, region, layer, or section from another element, component,region, layer, or section. Thus, “a first element,” “component,”“region,” “layer,” or “section” discussed below could be termed a secondelement, component, region, layer, or section without departing from theteachings herein.

The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particularembodiments only and is not intended to be limiting. As used herein, thesingular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” are intended to include the pluralforms, including “at least one,” unless the content clearly indicatesotherwise. “At least one” is not to be construed as limiting “a” or“an.” It will be further understood that the terms “comprises” and/or“comprising,” or “includes” and/or “including” when used in thisspecification, specify the presence of stated features, regions,integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do notpreclude the presence or addition of one or more other features,regions, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/orgroups thereof.

“About” or “approximately” as used herein is inclusive of the statedvalue and means within an acceptable range of deviation for theparticular value as determined by one of ordinary skill in the art,considering the measurement in question and the error associated withmeasurement of the particular quantity (i.e., the limitations of themeasurement system). For example, “about” can mean within one or morestandard deviations, or within ±10%, or 5% of the stated value.

Exemplary embodiments are described herein with reference to crosssection illustrations that are schematic illustrations of idealizedembodiments. As such, variations from the shapes of the illustrations asa result, for example, of manufacturing techniques and/or tolerances,are to be expected. Thus, embodiments described herein should not beconstrued as limited to the particular shapes of regions as illustratedherein but are to include deviations in shapes that result, for example,from manufacturing. For example, a region illustrated or described asflat may, typically, have rough and/or nonlinear features. Moreover,sharp angles that are illustrated may be rounded. Thus, the regionsillustrated in the figures are schematic in nature and their shapes arenot intended to illustrate the precise shape of a region and are notintended to limit the scope of the present claims.

As used herein, when a definition is not otherwise provided, the term“substituted” refers to a group or compound wherein at least one of thehydrogen atoms thereof is substituted with a C1 to C30 alkyl group, a C2to C30 alkynyl group, a C6 to C30 aryl group, a C7 to C30 alkylarylgroup, a C1 to C30 alkoxy group, a C1 to C30 heteroalkyl group, a C3 toC30 heteroalkylaryl group, a C3 to C30 cycloalkyl group, a C3 to C15cycloalkenyl group, a C3 to C30 cycloalkynyl group, a C2 to C30heterocycloalkyl group, a halogen (—F, —Cl, —Br, or —I), a hydroxy group(—OH), a nitro group (—NO₂), a cyano group (—CN), an amino group (—NRR′wherein R and R′ are independently hydrogen or a C1 to C6 alkyl group),an azido group (—N₃), an amidino group (—C(═NH)NH₂), a hydrazino group(—NHNH₂), a hydrazono group (═N(NH₂)), an aldehyde group (—C(═O)H), acarbamoyl group (—C(O)NH₂), a thiol group (—SH), an ester group(—C(═O)OR, wherein R is a C1 to C6 alkyl group or a C6 to C12 arylgroup), a carboxyl group (—COOH) or a salt thereof (—C(═O)OM, wherein Mis an organic or inorganic cation), a sulfonic acid group (—SO₃H) or asalt thereof (—SO₃M, wherein M is an organic or inorganic cation), aphosphoric acid group (—PO₃H₂) or a salt thereof (—PO₃MH or —PO₃M₂,wherein M is an organic or inorganic cation), and a combination thereof.

As used herein, the term “hydrocarbon group” refers to a monovalentgroup containing carbon and hydrogen (e.g., alkyl group, alkenyl group,alkynyl group, or aryl group) formed by a removal of a hydrogen atomfrom an aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbon such as alkane, alkene,alkyne, or arene. In the hydrocarbon group, at least one methylene(—CH₂—) moiety may be replaced with an oxide (—O—) moiety.

As used herein, the term “alkyl” refers to a linear or branched,saturated monovalent hydrocarbon group (e.g., methyl, hexyl, etc.).

As used herein, the term “alkenyl” refers to a linear or branchedmonovalent hydrocarbon group having at least one carbon-carbon doublebond.

As used herein, the term “aryl” refers to a monovalent group formed byremoving one hydrogen atom from at least one aromatic ring (e.g., phenylor naphthyl).

As used herein, when a definition is not otherwise provided, the term“hetero” refers to inclusion of 1 to 3 heteroatoms that can be N, O, S,Si, P, or a combination thereof.

Further as used herein, when a definition is not otherwise provided, analkyl group is a C1 to C20 alkyl, or a C1 to C12 alkyl, or a C1 to C6alkyl.

As used herein, the term “Group” refers to a Group of the PeriodicTable.

As used herein, “Group I” refers to Group IA and Group IB, and examplesof Group I include Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr, but are not limitedthereto.

As used herein, “Group II” refers to Group IIA and Group IIB, andexamples of Group II include Cd, Zn, Hg, and Mg, but are not limitedthereto, except where Cd is specifically excluded.

As used herein, “Group III” refers to Group IIIA and Group IIIB, andexamples of Group III include Al, In, Ga, and TI, but are not limitedthereto.

As used herein, “Group IV” refers to Group IVA and Group IVB, andexamples of a Group IV include Si, Ge, and Sn, but are not limitedthereto.

As used herein, the term “metal” refers to a metal such as an alkalimetal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, and a basic metal.The term “metal” also includes a semi-metal such as Si and the like.

As used herein, “doping” refers to the inclusion of a dopant in acrystal structure. In an exemplary embodiment, inclusion of a dopant inthe crystal structure does not substantially change the crystalstructure. For example, a dopant atom (e.g., a first metal such as Zn,potassium, or a chalcogen) may be substituted for an atom in a crystalstructure, or may be present in the interstices of a crystal lattice. Insome embodiments, the dopant element may bind with an elementconstituting the crystal lattice to form a chemical species attached toa surface thereof.

In some embodiments, when the dopant is present in the lattice or as analloy, an X-ray diffraction spectrum of the quantum dot including thedopant may show a crystalline peak that is shifted to a differentdiffraction angle relative to an X-ray diffraction spectrum of thequantum dot without the dopant. In other embodiments, the X-raydiffraction spectrum of a quantum dot including the dopant issubstantially the same as the X-ray diffraction spectrum of an undopedquantum dot. When the dopant is present as a crystal outside of thelattice of the quantum dot, its inherent peak may be detected in anX-ray diffraction spectrum thereof. In an embodiment, the presence ofthe dopant may be confirmed, for example, by X-ray photoelectronspectroscopy, energy dispersive X ray spectroscopy, inductively coupledplasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES), or a combination thereof.

As used herein, the term “quantum yield” (QY) or the term “quantumefficiency (QE) is a value determined from a photoluminescence spectrumobtained by dispersing quantum dots in toluene, and may be calculatedwith respect to the photoluminescent peak of an organic solution of areference dye (e.g., an ethanol solution of coumarin dye (absorption(optical density) at 458 nanometers (nm) is 0.1)). As used herein, theterm “quantum yield (QY)” and the term “quantum efficiency (QE)” mayhave substantially the same meaning and can be used interchangeably.

In an embodiment, a quantum dot has a perovskite crystal structure andincludes a compound represented by Chemical Formula 1:ABX_(3+α)  Chemical Formula 1

wherein A is a Group IA metal selected from Rb, Cs, Fr, and acombination thereof, B is a Group IVA metal selected from Si, Ge, Sn,Pb, and a combination thereof, X is BF₄, at least one halogen selectedfrom F, Cl, Br, and I, or a combination thereof, and α is greater than0, for example, greater than or equal to about 0.1, or greater than orequal to about 0.2, and less than or equal to about 3 for example, lessthan or equal to about 2.5, less than or equal to about 2, less than orequal to about 1.5, less than or equal to about 1, less than or equal toabout 0.9, less than or equal to about 0.8, less than or equal to about0.7, less than or equal to about 0.6, less than or equal to about 0.5,less than or equal to about 0.4, or less than or equal to about 0.3. Inan embodiment, a surface of the quantum dot includes a halogen. Forexample, a may be in a range of greater than 0 and less than 0.3 or in arange from 0.4 to 0.8. For example, a may be in a range of from 0.9 toless than 3.

In an embodiment, a quantum dot includes a compound represented by theabove Chemical Formula 1, wherein, A is a Group IA metal (selected fromRb, Cs, Fr, and a combination thereof), NR₄ ⁺, wherein each Rindependently is a hydrogen atom or a substituted or unsubstituted C1 toC10 straight or branched alkyl group (including but not limited toCH₃NH₃ ⁺, NH₄ ⁺, or C₂H₅NH₃ ⁺), [CH(NH₂)₂]⁺, or a combination thereof, Bis a Group IVA metal (selected from Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, and a combinationthereof), X is a halogen (selected from F, Cl, Br, I, and a combinationthereof), BF₄, or a combination thereof, and α is 0 to about 3, andoptionally includes at least one of a first dopant and a second dopant,and the first and the second dopants will be set forth below.

The perovskite crystal structure may have a cubic crystalline latticeand is confirmed by an X-ray diffraction spectrum, and the quantum dotmay have a cubic shape and/or a rectangular parallelepiped shape.

The compound represented by Chemical Formula 1 may include CsPbCl_(3+α),CsPbBr_(3+α), CsPbI_(3+α), CsPb(Cl,I)_(3+α), CsPb(Br,I)_(3+α),CsPb(Br,Cl)_(3+α), or a combination thereof. As used herein, theexpression (X1, X2) (wherein X1 and X2 are each independently a halogendifferent from each other) such as (Cl,I), (Br,I), and (Br,I), refers toa compound that includes two different halogens (i.e., Cl and I, Br andI, or Br and Cl). When the compound includes two halogens, the moleratio therebetween is not particularly limited. For example, when thecompound includes two halogens, X1 and X2, the amount of the X2 per onemole of X1 is greater than or equal to about 0.01 moles, for example,0.1 moles, greater than or equal to about 0.2 moles, greater than orequal to about 0.3 moles, greater than or equal to about 0.4 moles, orgreater than or equal to about 0.5 moles. In an embodiment, when thecompound includes two halogens, X1 and X2, the amount of the X2 per onemole of X1 is less than or equal to about 100 moles, less than or equalto about 10 moles, less than or equal to about 9 moles, less than orequal to about 8 moles, less than or equal to about 7 moles, less thanor equal to about 6 moles, less than or equal to about 5 moles, lessthan or equal to about 4 moles, less than or equal to about 4 moles,less than or equal to about 3 moles, less than or equal to about 2moles, or less than or equal to about 1 mole. For example, when thecompound includes two halogens, X1 and X2, the amount of the X2 per onemole of X1 is about 0.1 moles to about 10 moles, about 0.2 moles toabout 5 moles, or about 0.3 moles to about 3 moles, but it is notlimited thereto.

In the quantum dot, an atomic ratio of the halogen atoms relative to theGroup IA metal atoms when measured by a transmission electronmicroscope-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (TEM-EDX) analysis maybe greater than or equal to about 3.0, for example, greater than about3.0 or greater than or equal to about 3.1. The quantum dot may include agreater amount of halogen than a stoichiometric amount for the formationof the perovskite crystal and/or the quantum dot may have a halogen richsurface.

The quantum dot may further include at least one of a first dopant and asecond dopant. The first dopant may include potassium (K) or a firstmetal having a crystal ionic radius of less than about 133 picometers(pm) and being different from the Group IA metal and the Group IVAmetal. The second dopant may include a non-metal element that forms abond with the Group IVA metal. For example, the first metal may have acrystal ionic radius of about 67 pm to about 120 pm. The first metal mayhave a crystal ionic radius that is less than the crystal ionic radiusof the Group IVA metal of B. For example, when B is Pb, the crystalionic radius of the first metal is less than 133 pm. The crystal ionicradius may correspond to the physical size of the ion in a solid, and inthis regard, the publication of the revised ionic radius by Shannon maybe referred to (e.g., R. D. Shannon (1976) “Revised effective ionicradii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides andchalcogenides”. Acta Cryst A32, pp. 751-767, the content of which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety).

The first dopant may be a substitute for the metal element (e.g., theGroup IA metal such as Cs and Rb, and/or the Group IVA metal such as Pb)in the compound. In an embodiment, the first dopant may include thefirst metal having a crystal ionic radius that is less than crystalionic radius of the Group IVA metal. In an embodiment, the first dopantmay include a metal ion having the same valency as that of the Group IVAmetal or a Group IA metal (e.g., a monovalent ion or a divalent ion). Inan embodiment, the first dopant may include a metal element that forms acompound (e.g., a metal oxide) having a lattice structure that issubstantially similar to that of the perovskite lattice structure. Thesecond dopant may include an element that may form a chemical bond withthe Group IVA metal (e.g., Pb) during the synthesis of a quantum dotincluding the aforementioned compound, and thereby may be precipitatedout of solution. Without wishing to be bound by theory, this maycontribute to decreasing the amount of the Group IVA metal in a reactionsystem during the synthesis. As a result, the resulting quantum dot mayinclude an excess amount of the halogen, or a surface of the quantum dotmay include a halogen.

In some embodiments, the first metal may be selected from Zn, Cd, Hg,Ga, In, Tl, Cu, Al, Li, Na, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ag, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Fe, Cr,Zr, Mn, Ti, Ce, Gd, and a combination thereof. In some embodiments, thenon-metal element may be selected from S, Se, Te, and a combinationthereof.

The presence of the first and second dopants may be confirmed by aninductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES)analysis. For example, in the quantum dot, the amount of the firstdopant may be greater than or equal to about 0.001 ppm, for example,greater than or equal to about 0.04 ppm as measured by ICP-AES. In thequantum dot, the amount of the second dopant may be greater than orequal to about 0.001 ppm, for example, about 0.04 ppm when measured byICP-AES.

The quantum dot may be a colloidal quantum dot prepared in a wetchemical method, and thus a surface of the quantum dot may have anorganic ligand compound selected from RCOOH, RNH₂, R₂NH, R₃N, RSH, R₃PO,R₃P, ROH, RCOOR′, RPO(OH)₂, R₂POOH, RCOOCOR′ (wherein, each R and R′ areindependently a substituted or unsubstituted C1 to C24 aliphatichydrocarbon group such as an alkyl group, an alkenyl group, or analkynyl group, or a substituted or unsubstituted C6 to C24 aromatichydrocarbon group such as an aryl group), and a combination thereof.

Specific examples of the organic ligand compound may include methanethiol, ethane thiol, propane thiol, butane thiol, pentane thiol, hexanethiol, octane thiol, dodecane thiol, hexadecane thiol, octadecane thiol,benzyl thiol; methane amine, ethane amine, propane amine, butane amine,pentane amine, hexane amine, octane amine, dodecane amine, hexadecylamine, oleyl amine, octadecyl amine, dimethyl amine, diethyl amine,dipropyl amine, dl oleyl amine; methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoicacid, butanoic acid, pentanoic acid, hexanoic acid, heptanoic acid,octanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, hexadecanoic acid, octadecanoic acid,oleic acid, benzoic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid; a phosphine suchas methyl phosphine, ethyl phosphine, propyl phosphine, butyl phosphine,pentyl phosphine, tributylphosphine, or trioctylphosphine; a phosphineoxide compound such as methyl phosphine oxide, ethyl phosphine oxide,propyl phosphine oxide, butyl phosphine oxide, or trioctylphosphineoxide; diphenyl phosphine, a triphenyl phosphine compound or an oxidecompound thereof; phosphonic acid, and the like, but are not limitedthereto. The organic ligand compound may be used alone or as a mixtureof at least two organic ligands.

In some embodiments, the quantum dot does not include an amine organicligand having an alkyl group of at least 6 carbon atoms, such as atleast 8 carbon atoms (e.g., n-octyl amine).

The quantum dot (i.e., a nanocrystal particle including a semiconductormaterial) may have an energy bandgap that varies based on size andcomposition, and may have desirable photoluminescence properties such ascolor purity. These compounds may be suitable as a material applicableto various fields such as a display, an energy device, a semiconductor,a bio device, and the like. A colloidal halide perovskite quantum dotmay be a suitable quantum dot material due to its photoluminescenceproperties such as color tunability, desirable bandgap, and the like.

The present inventors have found that the halide perovskite quantum dotof, for instance, a CsPbX₃ nanoparticle or a CH₃NHPbX₃ nanoparticle,does not have desirable stability. For example, the halide perovskitequantum dot may exhibit an undesirable quantum yield when they areseparated from a synthesis solvent and/or washed to remove the solvent,or after dispersion in a dispersion solvent (e.g., toluene). Inaddition, the dispersibility of the halide perovskite quantum dot maydecrease over time. For example, when the halide perovskite quantum dotis separated from the synthesis solvent thereof, dispersed in adispersion solvent such as toluene, and then allowed to stand in theair, it loses its photoluminescence within one week, and isprecipitated.

Without wishing to be bound by any theory, when the halide perovskitequantum dot is separated from their synthesis solvent and washed, theymay lose an amount of an organic ligand previously bound to a surfacethereof, and due to such a loss of the ligand, the metal elements may beexposed on a surface thereof. The exposed metal elements may besusceptible to an external environment such as oxygen, moisture, orheat, and the metal elements may then be transformed into an oxide or adecomposition product. However, rather than being used directly afterthe synthesis, the quantum dots may be washed with a non-solvent for theremoval of impurities, and then be re-dispersed in a solvent optimizedfor an applied field. In addition, the quantum dots may go through asurface exchange or may be prepared into a quantum dot-polymercomposite. The aforementioned changes on a surface of the quantum dot(i.e., loss of the ligand and exposure of a metal atom) after thewashing with the non-solvent and the stability deterioration causedthereby may hinder the subsequent application of the quantum dot.

A quantum dot according to an embodiment may include a first dopant suchas Zn and a second dopant such as Se and/or additionally a halogen in anamount that exceeds the amount that is necessary for the formation ofthe perovskite structure. Accordingly, the quantum dots according to anembodiment may not show a substantial decrease in quantum efficiency (ora quantum yield) when they are removed from a synthesis solvent, washed,and then dispersed again in a dispersion solvent. For example, afterbeing separated from the synthesis solvent, the quantum dots of anembodiment may have a quantum efficiency of greater than or equal toabout 60%, for example, greater than or equal to about 70%, greater thanor equal to about 75%, or greater than or equal to about 80% of itsoriginal quantum efficiency. In addition, the quantum dots of anembodiment may be stable with respect to an external environment such asoxygen, moisture, and the like when they are dispersed in a dispersionsolvent (e.g., toluene). For example, the quantum dots of an embodimentmay maintain their initial quantum efficiency for about 24 hours orlonger, or about 48 hours or longer, in the air. In addition, thequantum dots of an embodiment may include a surface ligand in at leastan amount necessary for maintaining their stability, even when they areseparated from the synthesis solvent and washed. Therefore, the quantumdots of an embodiment may be re-dispersed in various dispersion solventseven after being kept in the air. In addition, the perovskite quantumdots according to an embodiment may include an excess amount of ahalogen together with a first dopant and/or a second dopant on a surfacethereof while keeping the ligand loss at a minimum level or suppressingthe same. Therefore, a surface oxidation of the quantum dots and/or lossof constituting elements due to heat, moisture, light, and the like maybe minimized. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, inclusion ofthe excess amount of halogen on a surface thereof together with thefirst/second dopants may bring forth a change in the elementalcomposition of the entire and/or the surface of the quantum dot (e.g.,the entire and/or the surface compositions of the quantum dot) and thismay reduce the amount of the organic ligand that is lost when thequantum dots are washed with a non-solvent. In addition, an individualor combined effect of the halogen element, the dopant, and the ligand ona surface thereof may reduce the amount of oxidation of the metalelement constituting the perovskite structure, and thereby may preservethe perovskite structure. The perovskite quantum dot of theaforementioned embodiments including the compound of Chemical Formula 1may be an inorganic material, and thus may show desirable long termstability in comparison of the perovskite quantum dot including anorganic substance (e.g., an amine salt).

The perovskite quantum dot may have a size of about 1 nm to about 50 nm,for example, about 2 nm to about 15 nm, or about 3 nm to about 14 nm.The size of the quantum dot may be measured using any suitable method.For example, the size of the quantum dot may be directly measured from atransmission electron microscopic (TEM) image or may be calculated fromthe full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the peak of the XRD spectrumand Scherrer equation.

The quantum dot may have a perovskite crystal structure and a cubic orrectangular cuboid shape, but is not limited thereto. The quantum dotmay have a FWHM of a photoluminescence peak wavelength of less than orequal to about 30 nm, for example, less than or equal to about 29 nm,less than or equal to about 28 nm, less than or equal to about 27 nm,less than or equal to about 26 nm, or less than or equal to about 25 nm.The quantum dot may have quantum efficiency (QE) or quantum yield (QY)of greater than or equal to about 60%, for example, greater than orequal to about 62%, greater than or equal to about 63%, greater than orequal to about 64%, greater than or equal to about 65%, greater than orequal to about 66%, or greater than or equal to about 67%. Theperovskite quantum dot of an embodiment, for example, includes nocadmium but may show desirable photoluminescence characteristics (e.g.,a high quantum efficiency, a narrow FWHM, and thus desirable colorpurity, and the like).

Other embodiments provide a method of preparing a perovskite quantumdot, which includes:

preparing a reaction solution including a first precursor including aGroup IA metal selected from Rb, Cs, Fr, and a combination thereof, NR₄⁺ (wherein each R independently is a hydrogen atom or a substituted orunsubstituted C1 to C10 straight or branched alkyl group), [CH(NH₂)₂]+,or a combination thereof, and optionally BF₄ (e.g., NR₄BF₄); a secondprecursor including a halogen and a Group IVA metal selected from Ge,Si, Sn, Pb, and a combination thereof; and at least one of a firstadditive and a second additive, wherein the first additive includes ahalogen and a first metal having a crystal ionic radius of less than orequal to about 133 pm and being different from the Group IA metal andthe Group IVA metal, and the second additive includes a non-metalelement that may form a bond with the Group IVA metal; and

carrying out a reaction between the first precursor and the secondprecursor in the reaction solution to synthesize a quantum dot that hasa perovskite crystal structure, includes a compound represented byChemical Formula 1, and has a size of about 1 nm to about 50 nm:ABX_(3+α)  Chemical Formula 1

wherein A is NR₄ ⁺, [CH(NH₂)₂]+, the Group IA metal, or a combinationthereof, B is the Group IVA metal, X is BF₄, the halogen, or acombination thereof, and α is greater than 0 and less than or equal toabout 3.

The halogen may include F, Cl, Br, I, or a combination thereof.

The preparing of the reaction solution may include solvating the firstprecursor, the second precursor, the first additive, the secondadditive, or combination thereof in a solvent selected from a C6 to C22amine compound, a nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound, a C6 to C40aliphatic hydrocarbon, a C6 to C30 aromatic hydrocarbon, a C6 to C22phosphine oxide compound, a C12 to C22 aromatic ether, and a combinationthereof.

The reaction solution may further include at least one organic ligandcompound selected from RCOOH, RNH₂, R₂NH, R₃N, RSH, R₃PO, R₃P, ROH,RCOOR′, RPO(OH)₂, R₂POOH, RCOOCOR′ (wherein, each R and R′ areindependently a substituted or unsubstituted C1 to C24 aliphatichydrocarbon group or a substituted or unsubstituted C6 to C24 aromatichydrocarbon group) and a combination thereof.

Referring to FIGS. 1 to 3 illustrating non-limiting examples, thepreparation of a reaction solution is illustrated in more detail.

Referring to FIG. 1 , the second precursor (e.g., PbX₂) and the firstadditive (e.g., ZnX₂) are mixed in a solvent, and the organic ligand(e.g., oleylamine and oleic acid) is injected thereinto to prepare asolution of the second precursor and the first additive.

Aside from the preparation of the aforementioned solution, a compoundincluding a Group IA metal (e.g., Cs₂CO₃) or a quaternary ammonium salt(e.g., a [CH(NH₂)₂]⁺ salt or a NR₄ ⁺ salt such as CH₃NH₃Br or CH₃NH₃BF₄)is dissolved in a solvent and optionally a compound (e.g., oleic acid)for forming the first precursor, and the solution is optionally heatedto prepare a first precursor solution including the first precursor(e.g., Cs oleate, that is, Group IA metal-carboxylate or quaternaryammonium salt such as CH₃NH₃Br).

The first precursor solution is added to a solution including the secondprecursor and the first additive to obtain a reaction solution, and areaction between the first and the second precursors is carried out inthe reaction solution. The reaction may be carried out at apredetermined temperature (e.g., at greater than or equal to about 50°C. (e.g., a temperature of about 100° C. to about 240° C.)). If desired,the second additive (e.g., selenium-triphenylphosphine (Se-TOP)) may beadded to the reaction solution before the initiation of the reaction orafter the progress of the reaction, and before the completion of thereaction.

Referring to FIG. 2 , the second precursor (e.g., PbX₂) may be mixedwith (or dissolved in) a solvent, and the organic ligand (e.g.,oleylamine and oleic acid) is injected thereto and the second precursoris solubilized to prepare a second precursor-containing solution.

A first precursor solution including the first precursor (e.g., Csoleate, that is, a Group IA metal-carboxylate) may be prepared bydissolving a compound including a Group IA metal (e.g., Cs₂CO₃) in asolvent and optionally a compound for forming the first precursor (e.g.,oleic acid), and optionally heating the solution.

The first precursor solution is added to the second precursor-containingsolution to obtain a reaction solution, and a reaction between the firstand the second precursors is carried out, for example, at a temperatureof greater than or equal to about 50° C. (e.g., a temperature of about100° C. to about 240° C.), and the second additive (e.g., Se-TOP) may beadded to the reaction solution before the initiation of the reaction orafter the progress of the reaction, and before the completion of thereaction. In some embodiments, the first precursor solution may be mixedwith the second precursor-containing solution during a process ofpreparing the second precursor-containing solution or adding materialsfor the second precursor to the first precursor solution in any order.

Referring to FIG. 3 , the second precursor (e.g., PbX₂) and the firstadditive (e.g., ZnX₂) are mixed with (dissolved in) a solvent, and theorganic ligand (e.g., oleylamine and oleic acid) is injected thereto todissolve the second precursor and the first additive and thereby asolution including the second precursor and the first additive isprepared. The solution including the first precursor may be prepared inaccordance with the aforementioned manner and may be added to thesolution including the second precursor and the first additive toprovide the reaction solution. As the reaction solution is heated to areaction temperature (e.g., a temperature of greater than or equal toabout 80° C., for example, a temperature of about 100° C. to about 240°C.), a reaction between the first and the second precursors is carriedout to synthesize the aforementioned quantum dot.

In the method illustrated in FIGS. 1 to 3 , the first additive and thesecond precursor are simultaneously dissolved in a solvent, but it isnot limited thereto. The first additive may be prepared as a separatesolution from the second precursor and then be added to the reactionsolution at any point prior to or during the synthesis of the compoundrepresented by Chemical Formula 1.

In addition, the second additive may be added to the reaction solutionat any time prior to or during the synthesis of the compound representedby Chemical Formula 1.

As described above, in the aforementioned method, the reaction solutionmay include the first additive, the second additive, or both, before theinitiation of the reaction or during the progress of the reaction.Accordingly, the reaction solution may include a reduced concentrationof the Group IVA metal (e.g. Pb) and a relatively high concentration ofthe halogen.

Without wishing to be bound by any theory, in the aforementioned method,the first additive may play a role of an additional supply source of thehalogen and may contribute to reducing the relative amount of the GroupIVA metal in the prepared quantum dot because the metal included therein(e.g., the first metal) may replace the Group IVA metal or may be added(e.g., be injected as an interstitial element or be bound physically ona surface of the quantum dot). In addition, the second additive may forma precipitate together with the Group IVA metal element (e.g., PbSe)during the synthesis of the compound represented by Chemical Formula 1,and thereby may further reduce the relative amount of the Group IVAmetal element in the quantum dot. Therefore, the quantum dot preparedaccording to the aforementioned method may have a halogen rich surfaceas confirmed by a TEM-EDX analysis without additional process steps suchas a ligand assisted re-precipitation (LARP) process. In addition, thequantum dot prepared according to the aforementioned method may includethe first dopant originated from the first additive and the seconddopant originated from the second additive.

In the aforementioned method, the first precursor includes the Group IAmetal (e.g., Cs or Rb), and may be a metal powder, metal carbonate,alkylated metal compound, metal alkoxide, metal carboxylate, metalnitrate, metal perchlorate, metal sulfate, metal acetylacetonate, metalhalide, metal cyanide, metal hydroxide, metal oxide, or metal peroxide.The first precursor may be used alone or as a mixture of two or morespecies. In an embodiment, the first precursor may include NR₄ ⁺(wherein each R independently is a hydrogen atom or a substituted orunsubstituted C1 to C10 straight or branched alkyl group) such as CH₃NH₃⁺, NH₄ ⁺, C₂H₅NH₃ ⁺, HC(NH₂)₂ ⁺, or a combination thereof. The firstprecursor may include a quaternary ammonium salt and an anion, whereinthe anion may be, for instance, a halogen or BF₄ ⁻ (e.g., a [CH(NH₂)₂]⁺salt or a NR₄ ⁺ salt such as CH₃NH₃Br or CH₃NH₃BF₄).

The first precursor may include the one (e.g., Cs-oleate) obtained byreacting a compound (e.g., Cs₂CO₃) including a Group IA metal with acertain compound (e.g., an organic ligand such as oleic acid) in areaction solvent. The first precursor may be heated to a temperature ofgreater than or equal to about 80° C., for example, greater than orequal to about 100° C., before the injection to minimize the amount ofprecipitation from the reaction solution.

The second precursor may include a Pb halide such as PbCl₂, PbI₂, orPbBr₂, a Ge halide such as GeCl₂, GeCl₄, GeI₂, GeI₄, GeBr₂, or GeBr₄, aSi halide such as SiCl₂, SiCl₄, SiI₂, SiI₄, SiBr₂, SiBr₄, a Sn halidesuch as SnCl₂, SnI₂, or SnBr₂, or a combination thereof. The secondprecursor may be used alone or as a mixture of at least two compounds.For the solubilization of the second precursor, the resulting mixturemay heated at a predetermined temperature (e.g., greater than or equalto about 80° C., for example, greater than or equal to about 120° C.) inthe presence of an organic ligand depending on a selected solvent.

The first additive may include a zinc halide such as ZnCl₂, ZnBr₂, orZnI₂, a Cd halide such as CdCl₂, CdBr₂, or CdI₂, a Hg halide such asHgCl₂, HgBr₂, or HgI₂, a Ga halide such as GaCl₃, GaBr₃, or GaI₃, an Inhalide such as InCl₃, InBr₃, or InI₃, a Tl halide such as Tl Cl, TlBr,or TlI, a Cu halide such as CuCl₂, CuBr₂, or CuI₂, a Al halide such asAlCl₃, AlBr₃, or AlI₃, a Li halide such as LiCl, LiBr, or LiI, a Nahalide such as NaCl, NaBr, or NaI, a K halide such as KCl, KBr, or Kl, aBe halide such as BeCl₂, BeBr₂, or BeI₂, a Mg halide such as MgCl₂,MgBr₂, or MgI₂, a Ca halide such as CaCl₂, CaBr₂, or CaI₂, a Sr halidesuch as SrCl₂, SrBr₂, or SrI₂, a Ag halide such as AgCl, AgBr, or AgI, aPt halide such as PtCl₂, PtBr₂, or PtI₂, a Pd halide such as PdCl₂,PdBr₂, or PdI₂, a Ni halide such as NiCl₂, NiBr₂, or NiI₂, a Co halidesuch as CoCl₂, CoBr₂, or CoI₂, a Fe halide such as FeCl₂, FeBr₂, orFeI₂, a Cr halide such as CrCl₃, CrBr₃, or CrI₃, a Zr halide such asZrCl₄, ZrBr₄, or ZrI₄, a Mn halide such as MnCl₂, MnBr₂, or MnI₂, a Tihalide such as TiCl₃, TiBr₃, or TiI₃, a Ce halide such as CeCl₃, CeBr₃,or CeI₃, a Gd halide such as GdCl₃, GdBr₃, or GdI₃, or a combinationthereof. The first additive may be used alone or as a mixture of two ormore compounds.

The second additive may be sulfur-trioctylphosphine (S-TOP),sulfur-tributylphosphine (S-TBP), sulfur-triphenylphosphine (S-TPP),sulfur-trioctylamine (S-TOA), sulfur-octadecene (S-ODE),sulfur-diphenylphosphine (S-DPP), sulfur-oleylamine (S-oleylamine),sulfur-dodecylamine (S-dodecylamine), dodecanethiol (DDT), octanethiol,selenium-trioctylphosphine (Se-TOP), selenium-tributylphosphine(Se-TBP), selenium-triphenylphosphine (Se-TPP), selenium-octadecene(Se-ODE), selenium-diphenylphosphine (Se-DPP),selenium-dodecylamine(Se-Dodecylamine), tellurium-tributylphosphine(Te-TBP), tellurium-triphenylphosphine (Te-TPP),tellurium-trioctylphosphine (Te-TOP), tellurium-octadecene (Te-ODE),tellurium-diphenylphosphine (Te-DPP), tellurium-oleylamine(Te-Oleylamine), tellurium-dodecylamine (Te-dodecylamine), or acombination thereof.

The solvent may include a C6 to C22 primary alkylamine such ashexadecylamine, a C6 to C22 secondary alkylamine such as dioctylamine, aC6 to C40 tertiary alkylamine such as trioctylamine, anitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound such as pyridine, a C6 to C40olefin such as octadecene, a C6 to C40 aliphatic hydrocarbon such ashexadecane, octadecane, or squalane, an aromatic hydrocarbon substitutedwith a C6 to C30 alkyl group such as phenyldodecane, phenyltetradecane,or phenyl hexadecane, a phosphine substituted with a C6 to C22 alkylgroup such as trioctylphosphine, a phosphine oxide substituted with a C6to C22 alkyl group such as trioctylphosphine oxide, a C12 to C22aromatic ether such as phenyl ether, or benzyl ether, or a combinationthereof. The solvent may be selected considering the precursors andorganic ligands.

The reaction may be performed under any suitable conditions such as atemperature or a time without a particular limit. For example, thereaction may be performed at greater than or equal to about 50° C.(e.g., a temperature of about 100° C. to about 240° C.) for greater thanor equal to about 1 second (e.g., about 10 seconds to about 20 minutes),but it is not limited thereto. The reaction may be performed under aninert gas atmosphere, in the air, or under a vacuum, but it is notlimited thereto.

After the completion of the reaction, a non-solvent is added to theresulting reaction mixture and thereby a quantum dot having the organicligand coordinated on the surface may be separated therefrom. Thenon-solvent may include a polar solvent that is miscible with thesolvent used in the reaction and nanocrystals are not dispersibletherein. The non-solvent may be selected in light of the solvent used inthe reaction and for example, it may include acetone, ethanol, butanol,isopropanol, water, tetrahydrofuran (THF), dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO),diethylether, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, ethylene glycol, a solventhaving a similar solubility parameter to the foregoing solvents, or acombination thereof. The separation may be carried out bycentrifugation, precipitation, chromatography, or distillation. Theseparated nanocrystal may be added to a washing solvent for washing ifdesired. Types of the washing solvent are not particularly limited andmay include a solvent having a similar solubility parameter to theligand. For example, the washing solvent may include hexanes, heptane,octane, chloroform, toluene, benzene, and the like.

A quantum dot manufactured according to the foregoing method may have aperovskite structure and may include a halogen in an excess amount,(e.g., on a surface thereof), as determined by the TEM-EDX analysis. Inaddition, the quantum dot may further include the first dopant and/orthe second dopant, the presence of which are confirmed by the ICP-AESanalysis. The quantum dot of an embodiment has this structure and mayshow improved stability in a dispersion solvent or a polymer matrixafter the process of solvent washing and separation as described above.

In another embodiment, a quantum dot-polymer composite includes

a polymer matrix; and

the quantum dot dispersed in the polymer matrix (see FIG. 5 ). Thepolymer matrix may be a thiol-ene polymer, a (meth)acrylate-basedpolymer, a urethane-based resin, an epoxy-based polymer, a vinyl-basedpolymer, a silicone resin, or a combination thereof. The thiolenepolymer is disclosed in US-2012-0001217-A1 which is incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety. The (meth)acrylate-based polymer, theurethane-based resin, the epoxy-based polymer, the vinyl-based polymer,and the silicone resin may be synthesized by any suitable methods, ormonomers or polymers thereof may be commercially available.

An amount of the quantum dot in the polymer matrix may be appropriatelyselected and is not particularly limited. For example, the amount of thequantum dot in the polymer matrix may be greater than or equal to about0.1 weight percent (wt %) and less than or equal to about 30 wt % basedon the total weight of the composite, but is not limited thereto.

A method of manufacturing the quantum dot polymer composite may includemixing a dispersion including the quantum dot with a solution includinga polymer and, then, removing a solvent therefrom, but is not limitedthereto. In an embodiment, the quantum dot polymer composite may beobtained by dispersing the quantum dot in a monomer mixture for formingthe polymer and polymerizing the obtained final mixture. This quantumdot-polymer composite may be a quantum dot sheet (QD sheet).

The quantum dot may show stability reinforced in the monomer mixture orthe polymer matrix and thus have a desirable luminous efficiency.

Some embodiments are directed to an electronic device including theaforementioned quantum dot polymer composite. Some embodiments aredirected to an electronic device including the quantum dot of theaforementioned embodiments. In an embodiment, the electronic device mayinclude a display device wherein the quantum dot polymer composite isused as a photo-conversion layer. In the electronic device, the quantumdot polymer composite may be positioned in a distance (or spaced apart)from a LED light source or may be in the form of a LED on-chip (a LEDPackage). The quantum dot polymer composite may be included in a waveguide. The quantum dot polymer composite may be included in the form ofa rail, a film, or a patterned layer.

In some embodiments, the quantum dot may be used in a luminescent layerof an electro-luminescent (EL) device. In the EL device, the quantum dotmay be used together with a light emitting organic or a light emittingpolymer. The quantum dot may be used alone in the luminescent layer ofthe EL device. The structure of the aforementioned electronic devicesare described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,501,091 (a LED on-chip, aLED package, or the like), U.S. Pat. No. 8,472,758 (waveguide), U.S.Pat. No. 8,718,437, U.S. Patent Publication No. 20150362654A1, U.S.Patent Publication No. 20130148376A1, U.S. Patent Publication No.20160077269A1, U.S. Pat. Nos. 9,322,979, 9,063,363, 8,835,941,9,054,329, and 7,700,200, the entire contents of which are incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety.

The electronic device may be a light emitting diode (LED), an organiclight emitting diode (OLED), a sensor, a solar cell, or an imagingsensor, but is not limited thereto. FIG. 6 shows a stacking structure ofa liquid crystal display (LCD) including the quantum dot sheet amongthese devices. Referring to FIG. 6 , the structure of the LCD mayinclude a reflector, a light guide panel (LGP), a blue LED light source(Blue-LED), a quantum dot-polymer composite sheet (QD sheet), opticalfilms (e.g., a prism, and a double brightness enhance film (DBEF) thatare stacked), and a liquid crystal panel that is disposed thereon.

Hereinafter, the embodiments are illustrated in more detail withreference to examples. However, they are example embodiments of thepresent invention, and the present invention is not limited thereto.

EXAMPLES Analysis Method

[1] Photoluminescence Analysis Such as Quantum Efficiency and the Like

A Hitachi F-7000 spectrometer is used to perform a photoluminescencespectrum analysis when light at 458 nm is radiated. Based on theobtained photoluminescence spectrum, a maximum photoluminescence peakwavelength, quantum efficiency, and a full width at half maximum (FWHM)are evaluated. The quantum efficiency is calculated with respect to thephotoluminescent peak of an ethanol solution of coumarin dye (absorption(optical density) at 458 nanometers (nm) is 0.1).

[2] TEM Analysis

A transmission electron microscope image is obtained by using aTEM-TITAN-80-300 (FEI) equipment at an acceleration voltage of 300 KV.Accordingly, the average diameter of a quantum dot is measured.

[3] X-ray Diffraction Analysis

An X-ray diffraction spectrum by using a Philips XPert PRO equipment isobtained.

[4] EDX Analysis

An EDS measuring device mounted on the TEM-TITAN-80-300 (FEI) is used toperform an energy-dispersing X-ray spectrum analysis.

[5] XPS Analysis

Quantum 2000 made by Physical Electronics, Inc. is used to perform anXPS element analysis under a condition of an acceleration voltage:0.5-15 keV, 300 W, and a minimum analysis area: 200×200 μm².

[6] ICP Analysis

ICPS-8100 (Shimadzu Corp.) is used to perform an inductively-coupledplasma-element releasing spectrum analysis.

Example 1: Synthesis of CsPbBr_(3+α) Doped with Zn and Se

[1] Preparation of Cs Precursor Solution

Cs₂CO₃ (0.8 grams (g), Sigma-Aldrich, 99%) is put into a 100 milliliter(mL) 3-neck flask along with octadecene (30 mL, Sigma-Aldrich, 90%, ODE)and oleic acid (2.5 mL, Sigma-Aldrich, 90%, OA), and the mixture isdried at 120° C. for one hour, and subsequently heated at 150° C. underN₂ to react the Cs₂CO₃ with the oleic acid and thereby obtain a firstprecursor of Cs-oleate. The Cs-oleate is precipitated from the ODE atroom temperature and heated up to 100° C. before being injected into thereaction solution.

[2] Preparation of a Solution Containing a Second Precursor and a FirstAdditive

The ODE (50 mL), PbBr₂ (0.69 g, Sigma-Aldrich Co., Ltd., 99.999%), andZnBr₂ (0.42 g, Sigma-Aldrich Co., Ltd., 99.999%) are placed in a 250 mL3-neck flask and dried at 120° C. for one hour. Then, dry oleylamine (5mL, STREM Chemicals, 95%, OLA) and dry OA (5 mL) are injected thereintoat 120° C. under a nitrogen atmosphere, and the obtained mixture isstirred to dissolve the PbBr₂ and the ZnBr₂ to prepare a solutioncontaining a second precursor and a first additive.

[3] The obtained solution containing the second precursor and the firstadditive is heated at a temperature of 200° C., the first precursorsolution obtained from [1] is rapidly injected thereto, and then Se-TOP(1.6 mmol) is added thereto. The Se-TOP is prepared as a 0.4 molar (M)solution by dissolving Se powder (RND Korea Co., LTD., 99.999%) inTri-n-octylphosphine (STREM Chemicals, 97%, TOP). After five minutes,the reaction solution is rapidly cooled to room temperature.

Subsequently, as a non-solvent, isopropanol is added to the cooledreaction solution to form a precipitate, which is then washed. Theprecipitate is centrifuged to obtain a quantum dot, and the obtainedquantum dot is dispersed in toluene and laurylmethacrylate,respectively. A Transmission Electron Microscopic (TEM) analysis iscarried out for the obtained quantum dots and the results are shown inFIG. 7 . The results of FIG. 7 confirm that the obtained quantum dotshave a cubic or rectangular cuboid shape and their average size is about10 nm (i.e., based on the TEM planar image, the length distribution ofthe long axis is 9.94 nm±1.83 nm).

For the obtained quantum dots, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses arecarried out and the results are shown in FIG. 4 . The results of FIG. 4confirm that the prepared quantum dots include a compound having aperovskite structure. The size of the quantum dot is 11.98 nm, ascalculated from the XRD results and the Scherrer equation:τ=Kλ/(β cos θ)

τ is the mean size of the ordered (crystalline) domains, which may beless than or equal to the grain size;

K is a dimensionless shape factor, with a value close to unity. Theshape factor has a typical value of about 0.9, but varies with theactual shape of the crystallite;

λ is the X-ray wavelength in nanometers;

β is the line broadening at half the maximum intensity (FWHM), aftersubtracting the instrumental line broadening, in radians. This quantityis also sometimes denoted as Δ(2θ),

θ is the Bragg angle.

[4] The toluene dispersion and the laurylmethacrylate dispersion, eachincluding the quantum dots, are kept in the air. A photoluminescencespectrum analysis of the quantum dots for each of the dispersions isperformed both after 24 hours and after 48 hours and the results aresummarized in Table 1 and Table 2.

Example 2: Synthesis of Se-doped CsPbBr_(3+α)

A quantum dot doped with Se and including CsPbBr_(3+α) is prepared inthe same method as Example 1, except for not using ZnBr₂ as a firstadditive, and the toluene dispersion and the laurylmethacrylatedispersion each including the prepared quantum dots are obtained,respectively.

The obtained quantum dots have a cubic or rectangular cuboid shape andtheir average size is about 10 nm.

The toluene dispersion and the laurylmethacrylate dispersion, eachincluding the quantum dots, are kept in the air. A photoluminescencespectrum analysis of the quantum dots for each of the dispersion isperformed after 24 hours and after 48 hours, and the results aresummarized in Table 1 and Table 2.

Example 3: Synthesis of Zn-doped CsPbBr_(3+α)

A quantum dot doped with Zn and including CsPbBr_(3+α) is prepared inthe same method as Example 1 except for not using the Se-TOP as a secondadditive, and the toluene dispersion and the laurylmethacrylatedispersion each including the prepared quantum dots are obtained,respectively.

The obtained quantum dots have a cubic or rectangular cuboid shape andtheir average size is about 10 nm.

The toluene dispersion and the laurylmethacrylate dispersion, eachincluding the quantum dots, are kept in the air. A photoluminescencespectrum analysis of the quantum dot for each of the dispersion isperformed after 24 hours and after 48 hours, and the results aresummarized in Table 1 and Table 2.

Comparative Example 1: Synthesis of Non-Doped CsPbBr₃

An un-doped quantum dot including CsPbBr₃ is prepared in the same methodas Example 1 except for not using the first and second additives, andthe toluene dispersion and the laurylmethacrylate dispersion eachincluding the prepared quantum dots are obtained, respectively.

The quantum dot has a cubic or rectangular cuboid shape and an averagesize of about 10 nm. For the quantum dot as prepared, an X-raydiffraction analysis is carried out and the results are shown in FIG. 4. The results of FIG. 4 confirm that the prepared quantum dots include acompound having a perovskite structure. The results of FIG. 4 confirmthat the FWHM at the (200) peak of the quantum dots of Example 1 issmaller than that of the quantum dots of Comparative Example 1. That is,the FWHM at the (200) peak of the quantum dots of Example 1 is 0.69while the FWHM at the (200) peak of the quantum dots of ComparativeExample 1 is 1. The size of the quantum dot calculated from the XRD dataand the Scherrer equation is about 8.46 nm.

The toluene dispersion and the laurylmethacrylate dispersion, eachincluding the quantum dots, are kept in the air. Directly after beingkept in the air, after the elapse of 24 hours therefrom and after 48hours therefrom, respectively, a photoluminescence spectrum analysis ofthe quantum dot for each of the dispersion is carried out and theresults are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2.

TABLE 1 After dispersion Toluene dispersion Toluene dispersion intoluene after 24 h after 48 h FWHM FWHM FWHM Sample λ (nm)^(a) (nm) QE λ(nm) (nm) QE λ (nm) (nm) QE Comparative Example 1 513 19 32 514 19 39 —— — Example 1 506 23 93 508 22 103 507 22 100 Example 2 513 18 53 512 1941 512 19 43 Example 3 508 23 78 507 23 85 507 23 93 ^(a)λ (nm):wavelength in nanometers.

TABLE 2 LMA dispersion LMA dispersion After dispersed in LMA after 24 hafter 48 h FWHM FWHM FWHM Sample λ (nm)^(a) (nm) QE λ (nm) (nm) QE λ(nm) (nm) QE Comparative Example 1 506 21 28 511 23 31 — — — Example 1503 22 67 503 21 68 508 22 70 Example 2 512 21 50 514 20 42 512 21 48Example 3 503 22 69 501 23 65 503 22 70 ^(a)λ (nm): wavelength innanometers.

The results of Tables 1 and 2 confirm that a quantum dot doped with afirst dopant and/or a second dopant may maintain a desirable FWHM whendispersed in either toluene or laurylmethacrylate, and show a suitableimprovement in quantum efficiency.

Example 4: Element Analysis of the Quantum Dot

[1] TEM-EDX Analysis

For the quantum dots prepared in Example 1 and Comparative Example 1, aTEM-EDX-analysis is carried out. As a result, in the case of the quantumdot of Example 1, an atomic ratio of the Br with respect to the Cs is3.14, while in the case of the quantum dot of Comparative Example 1, anatomic ratio of the Br with respect to the Cs is 2.83.

The aforementioned results confirm that the quantum dots of Example 1include a stoichiometric excess amount of halogen.

[2] XPS Analysis

For the quantum dots prepared in Example 1 and Comparative Example 1, anXPS analysis is carried out.

The results confirm that in case of the quantum dots of ComparativeExample 1, an atomic ratio of the Br with respect to the Pb (Pb4f/Br3d)is 59.4%/26.0%, while in case of the quantum dots of Example 1, theatomic ratio of the Br with respect to Pb (Pb4f/Br3d) is 66.0%/22.6%.The results also confirm that the quantum dots of Example 1 include astoichiometric excess amount of the Br.

[3] ICP-AES Analysis

For the quantum dots of Example 1, an ICP-AES analysis is carried out,and the results are shown below:

TABLE 3 Mole ratio ppm Sample Zn Pb Se Zn Pb Se Example 1 0.115 0.80.085 0.04 0.95 0.04

The results confirm that the quantum dots of Example 1 include a Znand/or Se dopant.

Example 5: Preparation of Composition for Light Conversion Layer andLight Conversion Layer

30 wt % of lauryl methacrylate, 36 wt % of tricyclodecane dimethanoldiacrylate, 4 wt % of trimethylol propane triacrylate, 20 wt % of epoxydiacrylate oligomer (Manufacturer: Sartomer), 1 wt % of1-hydroxy-cyclohexyl-phenyl-ketone, and 1 wt % of2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl-diphenyl-phosphine oxide are mixed to prepare amonomer and an oligomer mixture. The mixture is defoamed under vacuum.

The nanoparticles synthesized in Example 1 are centrifuged one time. Atoluene dispersion of the semiconductor nanocrystals [concentration:(absorption at 449 nm)×(volume of QD solution (mL))=3.75] thus obtainedis mixed again with an excess amount of ethanol, and the semiconductornanocrystal particles are centrifuged. The separated semiconductornanocrystals are dispersed in 0.15 g (10 wt % of the entire compositionexcept for an initiator) of lauryl methacrylate, the monomer (oligomer)mixture (1.35 g) is added thereto, and the resulting mixture is stirredto prepare a semiconductor nanocrystal composition.

About 1 g of the semiconductor nanocrystal composition prepared above isdrop-cast on a surface of a PET film sputtered with SiOx (purchased fromI-component, Hereinafter, a barrier film). On the composition, anotherbarrier film is placed, and then a UV-curing is carried out for 10seconds (photo intensity: 100 milliwatts per square centimeter (mW/cm²))to provide a light conversion layer. The light conversion layer isinserted between a light guide panel and an optical sheet of a 60-inchTV mounted with a blue LED having a peak wavelength of 449 nm, and theTV is operated and the luminance of the layer is measured at a distanceof about 45 cm with spectroradiometer (Konica Minolta Inc., CS-2000).The results are compiled in Table 4.

Example 6

A quantum dot-polymer composite is prepared in the same manner asExample 5 except for using the quantum dot-LMA dispersion prepared inExample 2.

For the quantum dot-polymer composite, a PL spectroscopy analysis ismade, and the results are compiled in Table 4.

Example 7

A quantum dot-polymer composite is prepared in the same method asExample 5 except for using the quantum dot-LMA dispersion of Example 3.

For the quantum dot-polymer composite, a PL spectroscopy analysis ismade, and the results are compiled in Table 4.

Comparative Example 2

A quantum dot-polymer composite is prepared in the same method asExample 5 except for using the quantum dot-LMA dispersion of ComparativeExample 1.

For the quantum dot-polymer composites of Examples 5-7 and ComparativeExample 2, a PL spectroscopy analysis is made, and the results arecompiled in Table 4. The quantum dot-polymer composites are furthermeasured to determine the optical conversion efficiency, and the resultsare provided in Table 4:

TABLE 4 Quantum dot-polymer composite (QD sheet) FWHM Light conversionSamples λ (nm)^(a) (nm) efficiency (%) Comparative Example 2 522 18 14.7Example 5 507 19 61.4 Example 6 505 18 49.3 Example 7 506 19 65.7 ^(a)λ(nm): wavelength in nanometers.

Referring to Table 4, the quantum dot-polymer composite sheet preparedin the Examples may show significantly improved light conversionefficiency in comparison with the QD sheet of the Comparative Example.

While this disclosure has been described in connection with what ispresently considered to be practical example embodiments, it is to beunderstood that the invention is not limited to the disclosedembodiments, but, on the contrary, is intended to cover variousmodifications and equivalent arrangements included within the spirit andscope of the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A quantum dot having a perovskite crystal structure and comprising a Group IA metal, a Group IVA metal, and a halogen, wherein the Group IA metal is Rb, Cs, Fr, or a combination thereof, the Group IVA metal is Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, or a combination thereof, and the halogen is F, Cl, Br, or I, and wherein a mole ratio of the halogen with respect to the Group IA metal is 3+α:1, and the α is in a range of greater than 0 and less than 0.3 or in a range from 0.4 to 0.8.
 2. The quantum dot of claim 1, wherein a photoluminescence peak wavelength of the quantum dot is in a range of about 300 nanometers to about 700 nanometers.
 3. The quantum dot of claim 1, wherein the quantum dot further comprises a first dopant, a second dopant, or a combination thereof, wherein the first dopant comprises potassium or a first metal having a crystal ionic radius of less than about 133 picometers, and wherein the first metal is different from the Group IA metal and the Group IVA metal, and wherein the second dopant comprises a non-metal element that forms a bond with the Group IVA metal.
 4. The quantum dot of claim 3, wherein the first metal is Zn, Hg, Ga, In, Tl, Cu, Al, Li, Na, Be, Mg, Ag, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Fe, Cr, Zr, Mn, Ti, Ce, Gd, or a combination thereof, and wherein the non-metal element is S, Se, Te, or a combination thereof.
 5. The quantum dot of claim 3, wherein the quantum dot comprises the first dopant, the second dopant, or a combination thereof, in an amount of greater than or equal to about 0.001 parts per million, when measured by an inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy analysis, respectively.
 6. The quantum dot of claim 1, wherein the compound is CsPbCl_(3+α), CsPbBr_(3+α), or CsPbI_(3+α).
 7. The quantum dot of claim 1, wherein a quantum dot organic solution including toluene and a plurality of the quantum dots dispersed in the toluene shows a quantum efficiency after being kept in air for 48 hours that is greater than or equal to an initial quantum efficiency of the quantum dot organic solution.
 8. The quantum dot of claim 1, wherein the quantum dot comprises an organic ligand compound, and wherein the organic ligand is RCOOH, RNH₂, R₂NH, R₃N, RSH, R₃PO, R₃P, ROH, RCOOR′, RPO(OH)₂, R₂POOH, or RCOOCOR′, wherein, each R and R′ are independently a substituted or unsubstituted C1 to C24 aliphatic hydrocarbon group or a substituted or unsubstituted C6 to C24 aromatic hydrocarbon group, or a combination thereof, and wherein the organic ligand compound is on a surface of the quantum dot.
 9. The quantum dot of claim 1, wherein the quantum dot shows a full width at half maximum photoluminescence peak wavelength of less than or equal to about 30 nanometers, a quantum efficiency of greater than or equal to about 60%, or a full width at half maximum photoluminescence peak wavelength of less than or equal to about 30 nanometers and a quantum efficiency of greater than or equal to about 60%.
 10. A quantum dot-polymer composite comprising a polymer matrix; and a plurality of the quantum dots of claim 1, wherein the plurality of quantum dots is dispersed in the polymer matrix.
 11. An electronic device comprising the quantum dot of claim
 1. 12. A quantum dot having a perovskite crystal structure and comprising a Group IA metal, a Group IVA metal, and a halogen, wherein the Group IA metal is Rb, Cs, Fr, or a combination thereof, the Group IVA metal is Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, or a combination thereof, and the halogen is F, Cl, Br, I, or a combination thereof and wherein a mole ratio of the halogen with respect to the Group IA metal is 3+α:1, and the α is in a range of from 0.9 to about
 3. 13. The quantum dot of claim 12, wherein a photoluminescence peak wavelength of the quantum dot is in a range of about 300 nanometers to about 700 nanometers.
 14. The quantum dot of claim 12, wherein the quantum dot further comprises a first dopant, a second dopant, or a combination thereof, wherein the first dopant comprises potassium or a first metal having a crystal ionic radius of less than about 133 picometers, and wherein the first metal is different from the Group IA metal and the Group IVA metal, and wherein the second dopant comprises a non-metal element that forms a bond with the Group IVA metal.
 15. The quantum dot of claim 14, wherein the first metal is Zn, Hg, Ga, In, Tl, Cu, Al, Li, Na, Be, Mg, Ag, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Fe, Cr, Zr, Mn, Ti, Ce, Gd, or a combination thereof, and wherein the non-metal element is S, Se, Te, or a combination thereof.
 16. The quantum dot of claim 12, wherein the compound is CsPbCl_(3+α), CsPbBr_(3+α), or CsPbI_(3+α).
 17. The quantum dot of claim 14, the quantum dot comprising the first dopant, the second dopant, or a combination thereof, in an amount of greater than or equal to about 0.001 parts per million, when measured by an inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy analysis, respectively.
 18. The quantum dot of claim 12, wherein the quantum dot shows a full width at half maximum photoluminescence peak wavelength of less than or equal to about 30 nanometers, a quantum efficiency of greater than or equal to about 60%, or a full width at half maximum photoluminescence peak wavelength of less than or equal to about 30 nanometers and a quantum efficiency of greater than or equal to about 60%.
 19. A quantum dot-polymer composite comprising a polymer matrix; and a plurality of the quantum dots of claim 12, wherein the plurality of quantum dots is dispersed in the polymer matrix.
 20. An electronic device comprising the quantum dot of claim
 12. 